Chapter 16: Reproductive System
Part A: Male System
1. Gonads
a. Primary sex organs
i. Males = testes
ii. Females = ovaries
b. Produce and secrete
i. Males = sperm
ii. Females = ova (eggs)
2. Male reproductive system overview
a. Testes (2)
b. Duct system
i. Epididymis (2)
ii. Ductus deferens = vas deferens (2)
iii. Urethra (1)
c. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicles (2)
ii. Prostate (1)
iii. Bulbourethral glands (2)
d. External genitalia
i. Penis
ii. Scrotum
3. Specialized structures
a. Testes
i. Coverings
1. Tunica albuginea- capsule that surrounds each testis
2. Septa (singular = septum)- extensions of the capsule, divide testis into lobules
ii. Internal structure
1. Lobules contain one to four seminiferous tubules
2. Sperm travels through the rete testis to the epididymis
3. Interstitial cells in the s.t.’s produce androgens (testosterone)
a. Castration removal of testes
b. Duct system
i. Epididymis
1. Comma shaped, tightly coiled tube
2. Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
3. Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in walls to the vas deferens
ii. Vas deferens
1. Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
2. Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
3. Moves sperm by peristalsis
4. Spermatic cord- cord—ductus deferens, blood vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue sheath
5. Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
6. Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the vas create peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm forward
7. Vasectomy- cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of sperm
iii. Urethra
1. Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
2. Carries both urine and sperm
3. Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
c. Semen
i. Mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
ii. Advantages of accessory gland secretions
1. Fructose provides energy for the sperm cells
2. Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic environment of vagina
3. Semen inhibits bacteria
4. Elements of semen enhance sperm mobility
d. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicle
1. Located at the base of the bladder
2. Produces thick, yellowish secretion (about 60% of semen)
3. Contains: fructose, vitamin C, and other substances that enhance sperm mobility
ii. Prostate
1. Encircles the upper part of the urethra
2. Secretes milky fluid that:
a. Helps to activate sperm
b. Enters the urethra through several small ducts
3. Enlarged prostate constricts flow through urethra
iii. Bulbourethral gland
1. Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
2. Produces thick, clear mucus that
a. Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
b. Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
c. Secreted into the penile urethra
e. External genitalia
i. Scrotum
1. Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
2. Maintains testes at 3oC (5oF) lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability
ii. Penis
1. Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
2. Regions of the penis:
a. Shaft with erectile tissue
b. Glans penis (enlarged tip)- sensitivity
c. Prepuce = foreskin
i. Folded cuff of skin around the proximal end
ii. Often removed by circumcision
3. Internal
a. Three areas of spongy tissue around the urethra
b. Erections occur when this erectile tissue fills with blood during sexual excitement
4. Spermatogenesis
a. Overview
i. Production of sperm cells
ii. Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
iii. Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
b. Spermatogonia = stem cells undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty
i. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies cell division
1. One cell produced is a stem cell, called a type A daughter cell
2. The other cell produced becomes a primary spermatocyte, called a type B daughter cell
ii. Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
1. One primary spermatocyte four haploid spermatids
2. Spermatids- 23 chromosomes (half as much material as other body cells)
c. Human life cycle
i. Union of a sperm (n or 23 chromosomes) with an egg (23 chromosomes) creates a zygote (2n or 46 chromosomes)
1. N + N = 2N
d. Spermiogenesis
i. Late spermatids develop distinct regions:
ii. Sperm cells result
iii. Entire spermatogenesis process
e. Sperm cell anatomy
i. The only
ii. Three parts
1. Head
a. Contains
b. Acrosome
c. Breaks down and releases
2. Midpiece
3. Tail
f. Testosterone production
i. The most important
ii. Produced in
iii. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. This causes
iv. Functions of testosterone
1. Stimulates
2. Underlies
3. Causes
a. Deepening
b. Increased
c. Enlargement
d. Thickening
Chapter 16: Reproductive System
Part B: Female System
1. Overview
a. Ovaries (2)- produce eggs and female sex hormones
b. Duct system (transport):
i. Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) (2)- egg transport
ii. Uterus (1)- embryo/fetal development
iii. Vagina (1)- copulation, birth canal
c. External genitalia- copulation
2. Ovaries
a. Composed of ovarian follicles (sac-like structures)
i. Oocyte (immature egg)
ii. Follicular cells- surround the oocyte
iii. Follicular stages
1. Primary follicle- contains an immature oocyte
2. Graafian follicle- growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
3. Ovulation- when the egg is mature, the follicle ruptures (about every 28 days)
4. The ruptures follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum
b. Support
i. Suspensory ligaments- secure ovary to laternal walls of the pelvis
ii. Ovarian ligaments- attach to uterus
iii. Broad ligament- a fold of the peritoneum encloses suspensory ligament
3. Duct system
a. Fallopian tubes
i. Receive the ovulated oocyte
ii. Provide a site for fertilization
iii. Attach to the uterus
iv. Little or no contact between the ovaries and uterine tubes
v. Supported and enclosed
vi. Anatomy & physiology
1. Fimbriae
a. Finger-like projections at the distal end of the uterine tube
b. Receive the oocyte from the ovary
2. Cilia
a. Located inside the uterine tube
b. Slowly move the oocyte toward the uterus (takes 3-4 days)
3. Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte lives about 24 hours
b. Uterus
i. Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
ii. Hollow organ- pear shape
iii. Functions
1. Receives a fertilized egg
2. Retains the fertilized egg
3. Nourishes the fertilized egg
iv. Support
1. Broad
2. Round
3. Uterosacral
v. Regions of the Uterus
1. Body- main portion
2. Fundus- superior rounded region above where uterine tube enters
3. Cervix- narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina
vi. Walls of Uterus
1. Endometrium
a. Inner layer
b. Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
c. Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (mensus)
2. Myometrium- middle layer of smooth muscle
3. Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)- outermost serous layer of the uterus
c. Vagina
i. Extends from
ii. Located between
iii. Serves as
iv. Receives
v. Hymen
4. External genitalia = vulva
a. Mons pubis
i. Fatty area
ii. Covered with
b. Labia =
i. Majora
ii. Minora
iii. Corresponds to
iv. Majora encloses vestibule
1. Contains external openings of
c. Clitoris
i. Contains
ii. Corresponds to
1. Hooded
2. Composed of
3. Becomes swollen
d. Greater vestibular glands
i. One found on
ii. Secretes
e. Perineum
i. Diamond-shaped defined by:
1. Anterior:
2. Posterior:
3. Lateral:
ii. Urethral orifice
iii. Vaginal orifice
5. Oogenesis and ovarian cycle
a. Total supply of eggs are presented at birth
b. Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
c. Reproductive ability ends at menopause
d. Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles
e. The process and steps of oogenesis
i. Oogonia- female stem cells found in a developing fetus
ii. Oogonia undergo mitosis- oogonia undergo mitosis produce primary oocytes
iii. Cells surrounding primary oocytes form primary follicles in the ovary
iv. Oogonia no longer exist
v. Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
vi. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicle to mature each month
vii. Cyclic monthly changes
f. Meiosis
i. Starts inside maturing follicle
ii. Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
iii. Development to mature stage takes about 14 days
iv. Secondary oocyte ovulates with the release of luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. Secondary oocyte is release and surrounded by a corona radiate (nurturing cells)
v. Is completed
1. Ovum = egg
2. Two additional
vi. Zygote (fertilized egg) =
vii. If no fertilization
viii. Comparison
1. Males
2. Females
ix. Sperm and egg comparison
1. Sperm
2. Egg
Chapter 16: Reproductive System & Development
Part C: Menstrual cycle, Pregnancy
1. Menstrual (uterine) cycle
a. Overview
i. Cyclic changes of the endometrium
ii. Regulated by cyclic production
iii. FSH and LH regulate the production of estrogens and progesterone
iv. Both female cycles are about 28 days in length
v. Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle on day 14
1. However,
b. Stages
i. Menstrual phase
1. Days 1-5
2. Functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
3. Bleeding occurs for 3-5
4. By day 5 growing ovarian follicles are producing more estrogen
ii. Proliferative
1. Days 6-14
2. Regulation of functional layer of the endometrium
3. Estrogen levels rise
4. Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage
iii. Secretory
1. Days 15-28
2. Progesterone levels rise and increase the blood supply to the endometrium
3. Endometrium increases in size and readies for implantation
4. If fertilization does occur:
a. Embryo produces a hormone (HCG) that causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones
5. If fertilization does not occur
a. Corpus luteum degenerates as LH blood levels decline
c. Hormones produced by ovaries
i. Estrogen
1. Produced by follicle cells
2. Cause secondary sex characteristics
a. Enlargement of accessory organs
b. Development of breast
c. Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
d. Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
e. Widening and lightening of the pelvis
f. Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
ii. Progesterone = the hormone of pregnancy
1. Produced by the corpus luteum
2. Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
3. Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
4. Helps maintain pregnancy
5. Prepares breasts for milk production
6. Feedback
d. Mammary glands
i. Present in
1. Modified
ii. Function is
iii. Stimulated by
Wednesday, May 25, 2011
Chapter 15 Urinary System
Chapter 15: Urinary System
Part A: Kidneys & Urine
1. Functions of the urinary system
a. Elimination of waste products:
i. Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, ammonia
ii. Toxins- harmful or fatal in small doses
iii. Drugs- have specific & significant effects on cells
b. Regulate aspects of homeostasis:
i. Water balance- osmosis
ii. Electrolytes: ions such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl
iii. Acid-base balance in the blood
iv. BP = blood pressure
v. RBC = red blood cell production
vi. Activation of vitamin D
2. Organs of the system
a. Kidneys- where blood is actively processed
i. Renal= kidney
b. Ureters- tubes draining kidneys
c. Urinary bladder- urine storage
d. Urethra- from bladder to exterior of body
3. Kidneys
a. Location
i. Retroperitoneal = against the dorsal body wall
ii. At the level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
iii. The right kidney is slightly lower than the left (due to position of the liver)
b. Features
i. Shape- kidney bean shaped
ii. Renal hilum
1. A medial indentation where several structures enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
iii. Adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
c. Coverings
i. Fibrous capsule
1. Surrounds each kidney- connective tissue
ii. Perirenal fat capsule
1. Surrounds the kidney and cushions against blows
iii. Renal fascia
1. Outermost capsule that helps hold the kidney in place against the muscles of the trunk wall
d. Anatomical regions – renal:
i. Cortex- outer region
ii. Medulla- inside the cortex
iii. Pelvis- inner collecting tube, like a funnel
e. Internal structures
i. Renal or medullary pyramids- triangular regions of tissue in the medulla
ii. Renal columns- extensions of cortex-like material inward that separate the pyramids
iii. Renal calyces (calyx)- cup-shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis
f. Blood supply
i. 25% of the total blood supply o the body passes through the kidneys each minute
ii. Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
iii. Arterioles and capillary beds – details below
4. Nephrons
a. Structural and functional units of the kidneys
b. Over a million in each kidney
c. Responsible for forming urine
d. Main structures
i. Glomerulus- knot of capillaries
ii. Capillaries are covered with podocytes from the renal tubule
iii. Glomerulus sits within a glomerular (Bowman’s capsule) the first part of the renal tubule
e. Anatomy
i. Renal tubule extends from glomerular capsule and ends at the collecting duct
1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
3. Loop of Henle- deep into medulla
4. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
f. Types
i. Cortical nephrons:
ii. Located entirely in the cortex
iii. Includes most nephrons
iv. Juxtamedullary- next to the medulla
v. Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla
vi. Extend deeper into kidney
g. Collecting ducts
i. Receives urine from many nephrons
ii. Runs through the medullary pyramids
iii. Delivers urine into the calyces and renal pelvis
h. Associated with two capillary beds
i. Glomerulus
1. Arterioles leading in and out
a. Afferent arterioles- arises from a cortical radiate artery and feeds the glomerulus
b. Efferent arterioles- receives blood that has passed through the glomerulus
2. Specialized for filtration
3. High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and into the glomerular capsule
ii. Peritubular
1. Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
2. Normal, low pressure capillaries
3. Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
4. Cling close to the renal tubule to reabsorb some substances
5. Urine formation
a. Glomerular filtration
i. Tubular reabsorption
ii. Tubular secretion
iii. Nonselective passive process
iv. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
v. Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane
vi. Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule
b. Tubular reabsorption
i. Peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substance-
1. Water
2. Glucose
3. Amino acids
4. Ions
ii. Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
iii. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
iv. Materials not reabsorbed
1. Nitrogenous
a. Urea- protein breakdown
b. Uric acid- nucleic acid breakdown
c. Creatinine- associated with creatine metabolism in muscles
c. Tubular secretion = reabsorption in reverse
i. Some materials move from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules
ii. Examples: hydrogen and potassium ions, creatine, H+, K+, creatine, drugs, pH controls
iii. Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter
d. Urine
i. Characteristics
1. Yellow color due to the pigment urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
a. Concentration
2. Odor
3. Sterile- kills many bacteria because:
4. Normal pH of around 6
5. Specific gravity = density
a. 1.001 to 1.035
6. Normal production in 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
7. Urine vs. filtrate
a. Filtrate = contains everything that blood plasma does (except proteins)
b. Urine = is what remains after the filtrate has lost most of its water, nutrients, necessary ions
ii. Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances that are not needed
iii. Does not contain things that are valuable or are too large to diffuse through membranes:
Chapter 15: The Urinary System
Part B
1. Urinary structures
a. Ureters
i. Slender tubes attach each kidney to the bladder
ii. Run from renal pelvis to the posterior aspect of the bladder
iii. Runs behind the peritoneum
iv. Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
b. Urinary bladder
i. Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
ii. Temporary stores urine
iii. Trigone- triangular region of the bladder base
iv. Three openings
1. Two from the ureters
2. One to the urethra
v. In males, the prostate gland surrounds the neck of the bladder and urethra
vi. Bladder wall
1. Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the detrusor muscle
2. Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
3. Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
4. Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
vii. Capacity
1. Moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about 500 mL of urine
2. Maximum
c. Urethra
i. Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
ii. Urine release is controlled by two sphincters:
1. Internal urethral sphincter
a. Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
iii. Gender differences
1. Length: females more likely to get bladder infections
a. Female is 3-4 cm (1 inch)
b. Male is 20 cm (8 inches)
2. Location
a. Female- along wall of the vagina
b. Male- through the prostate and penis
3. Function
a. Female- only carries urine
b. Male- carries urine and sperm
2. Micturition = voiding (peeing)
a. Both sphincters muscles must open to allow voiding
b. Internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
c. Pelvic nerves initiate bladder to go into reflex contractions
d. Urine is forced past the internal urethra sphincter and the person feels the urge to void
e. External urethral sphincter must be voluntary relaxed to void
3. Fluid, electrolyte, acid-base balance
a. Blood composition depends on three factors:
i. Diet
ii. Cellular metabolism
iii. Urine output
iv. Four roles of kidneys in maintaining blood composition
1. Excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes (previously discussed)
2. Maintaining water balance of the blood
3. Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood
4. Ensuring proper blood pH
b. Water balance
i. Normal amount in body by mass
1. Young adult female = 50%
2. Young adult male = 60%
3. Babies = 75%
4. The elderly = 45%
5. Water is necessart for manly body functions, and levels must be maintained
6. “Universal” solvent
ii. Distribution of body fluid
1. Intracellular (ICF)-
a. Fluid inside cells
b. About 2/3 of body fluid
2. Extracellular (ECF)
a. Fluid outside cells
b. Interstitial fluid
c. Blood plasma
iii. Link between water and salt
1. Solutes in the body include electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium ions
2. Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one compartment to another (osmosis)
a. Alters blood volume and blood pressure
b. Impairs the activity of cells
iv. Water in = water out
1. Sources for water intake-
a. Ingested foods and fluids
b. Water produced from metabolic processes (-10%)
c. Thirst mechanism is the driving force of water intake
2. Sources for water output
a. Vaporization out of the lungs
b. Lost in perspiration
c. Leave the body in the feces
d. Urine production
3. Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
4. Less urine (concentrated) is produced if large amounts of water are lost
5. Proper concentrations of various electrolyte must be present
v. Regulation of water and electrolyte reabsorption
1. Osmoreceptors: cells in the hypothalamus
a. React to changes in blood composition by becoming more active
2. Regulation occurs primarily by hormones
a. ADH = antidiuretic hormone
i. Prevents excessive water loss in urine
ii. Causes the kidney’s collecting ducts to reabsorb more water
iii. Alcohol suppresses ADH, causing urination
iv. Diabetes insipidus
1. Occurs when ADH is not released
2. Leads to huge outputs of dilute urine
b. Aldosterone
i. From adrenal cortex
ii. Regulates sodium ion content of ECF
iii. Sodium is the electrolyte most responsible for osmotic water flows
iv. Aldesterone promotes reabsorption of sodium ions
v. Remember, water flows salt!
c. Rennin-angiotensin mechanism
i. Juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus
1. Cells stimulated by
2. Rennin produces
3. Angiotensin II causes
4. Results in
c. Maintaining acid-base balance in blood
i. Blood pH between
1. Alkalosis =
2. Acidosis =
3. Physiological acidosis =
ii. Body acids
1. P , L, A
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Ammonia
4. Acid-base control systems/organs
a. Kidneys
b. Respiration
c. Blood buffers
i. Acids =
ii. Strong acids =
iii. Weak acids =
iv. Bases =
v. Strong bases =
vi. Weak bases =
vii. Action
1. Bind to H+
2. Release H+
viii. Three major systems
1. Protein
2. Phosphate
3. Bicarbonate
a. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
b. Carbonic acid
c. Bicarbonate ions
d. HCl + NaHCO3 H2CO3 + NaCl
4. Developmental aspects of the urinary system
a. Early life
i. Functional kidneys
ii. Newborn
1. Bladder
2. Urine
3. Void
iii. Young children
1. Control of voluntary sphincter
2. Nighttime control
3. Bladder infections
iv. Elderly
1. Bladder changes
2. Associated problems
a. Urgency
b. Frequency
c. Nocturia
d. Incontinence
e. Urinary retention
Part A: Kidneys & Urine
1. Functions of the urinary system
a. Elimination of waste products:
i. Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, ammonia
ii. Toxins- harmful or fatal in small doses
iii. Drugs- have specific & significant effects on cells
b. Regulate aspects of homeostasis:
i. Water balance- osmosis
ii. Electrolytes: ions such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl
iii. Acid-base balance in the blood
iv. BP = blood pressure
v. RBC = red blood cell production
vi. Activation of vitamin D
2. Organs of the system
a. Kidneys- where blood is actively processed
i. Renal= kidney
b. Ureters- tubes draining kidneys
c. Urinary bladder- urine storage
d. Urethra- from bladder to exterior of body
3. Kidneys
a. Location
i. Retroperitoneal = against the dorsal body wall
ii. At the level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
iii. The right kidney is slightly lower than the left (due to position of the liver)
b. Features
i. Shape- kidney bean shaped
ii. Renal hilum
1. A medial indentation where several structures enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
iii. Adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
c. Coverings
i. Fibrous capsule
1. Surrounds each kidney- connective tissue
ii. Perirenal fat capsule
1. Surrounds the kidney and cushions against blows
iii. Renal fascia
1. Outermost capsule that helps hold the kidney in place against the muscles of the trunk wall
d. Anatomical regions – renal:
i. Cortex- outer region
ii. Medulla- inside the cortex
iii. Pelvis- inner collecting tube, like a funnel
e. Internal structures
i. Renal or medullary pyramids- triangular regions of tissue in the medulla
ii. Renal columns- extensions of cortex-like material inward that separate the pyramids
iii. Renal calyces (calyx)- cup-shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis
f. Blood supply
i. 25% of the total blood supply o the body passes through the kidneys each minute
ii. Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
iii. Arterioles and capillary beds – details below
4. Nephrons
a. Structural and functional units of the kidneys
b. Over a million in each kidney
c. Responsible for forming urine
d. Main structures
i. Glomerulus- knot of capillaries
ii. Capillaries are covered with podocytes from the renal tubule
iii. Glomerulus sits within a glomerular (Bowman’s capsule) the first part of the renal tubule
e. Anatomy
i. Renal tubule extends from glomerular capsule and ends at the collecting duct
1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
3. Loop of Henle- deep into medulla
4. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
f. Types
i. Cortical nephrons:
ii. Located entirely in the cortex
iii. Includes most nephrons
iv. Juxtamedullary- next to the medulla
v. Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla
vi. Extend deeper into kidney
g. Collecting ducts
i. Receives urine from many nephrons
ii. Runs through the medullary pyramids
iii. Delivers urine into the calyces and renal pelvis
h. Associated with two capillary beds
i. Glomerulus
1. Arterioles leading in and out
a. Afferent arterioles- arises from a cortical radiate artery and feeds the glomerulus
b. Efferent arterioles- receives blood that has passed through the glomerulus
2. Specialized for filtration
3. High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and into the glomerular capsule
ii. Peritubular
1. Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
2. Normal, low pressure capillaries
3. Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
4. Cling close to the renal tubule to reabsorb some substances
5. Urine formation
a. Glomerular filtration
i. Tubular reabsorption
ii. Tubular secretion
iii. Nonselective passive process
iv. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
v. Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane
vi. Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule
b. Tubular reabsorption
i. Peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substance-
1. Water
2. Glucose
3. Amino acids
4. Ions
ii. Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
iii. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
iv. Materials not reabsorbed
1. Nitrogenous
a. Urea- protein breakdown
b. Uric acid- nucleic acid breakdown
c. Creatinine- associated with creatine metabolism in muscles
c. Tubular secretion = reabsorption in reverse
i. Some materials move from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules
ii. Examples: hydrogen and potassium ions, creatine, H+, K+, creatine, drugs, pH controls
iii. Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter
d. Urine
i. Characteristics
1. Yellow color due to the pigment urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
a. Concentration
2. Odor
3. Sterile- kills many bacteria because:
4. Normal pH of around 6
5. Specific gravity = density
a. 1.001 to 1.035
6. Normal production in 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
7. Urine vs. filtrate
a. Filtrate = contains everything that blood plasma does (except proteins)
b. Urine = is what remains after the filtrate has lost most of its water, nutrients, necessary ions
ii. Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances that are not needed
iii. Does not contain things that are valuable or are too large to diffuse through membranes:
Chapter 15: The Urinary System
Part B
1. Urinary structures
a. Ureters
i. Slender tubes attach each kidney to the bladder
ii. Run from renal pelvis to the posterior aspect of the bladder
iii. Runs behind the peritoneum
iv. Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
b. Urinary bladder
i. Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
ii. Temporary stores urine
iii. Trigone- triangular region of the bladder base
iv. Three openings
1. Two from the ureters
2. One to the urethra
v. In males, the prostate gland surrounds the neck of the bladder and urethra
vi. Bladder wall
1. Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the detrusor muscle
2. Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
3. Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
4. Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
vii. Capacity
1. Moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about 500 mL of urine
2. Maximum
c. Urethra
i. Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
ii. Urine release is controlled by two sphincters:
1. Internal urethral sphincter
a. Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
iii. Gender differences
1. Length: females more likely to get bladder infections
a. Female is 3-4 cm (1 inch)
b. Male is 20 cm (8 inches)
2. Location
a. Female- along wall of the vagina
b. Male- through the prostate and penis
3. Function
a. Female- only carries urine
b. Male- carries urine and sperm
2. Micturition = voiding (peeing)
a. Both sphincters muscles must open to allow voiding
b. Internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
c. Pelvic nerves initiate bladder to go into reflex contractions
d. Urine is forced past the internal urethra sphincter and the person feels the urge to void
e. External urethral sphincter must be voluntary relaxed to void
3. Fluid, electrolyte, acid-base balance
a. Blood composition depends on three factors:
i. Diet
ii. Cellular metabolism
iii. Urine output
iv. Four roles of kidneys in maintaining blood composition
1. Excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes (previously discussed)
2. Maintaining water balance of the blood
3. Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood
4. Ensuring proper blood pH
b. Water balance
i. Normal amount in body by mass
1. Young adult female = 50%
2. Young adult male = 60%
3. Babies = 75%
4. The elderly = 45%
5. Water is necessart for manly body functions, and levels must be maintained
6. “Universal” solvent
ii. Distribution of body fluid
1. Intracellular (ICF)-
a. Fluid inside cells
b. About 2/3 of body fluid
2. Extracellular (ECF)
a. Fluid outside cells
b. Interstitial fluid
c. Blood plasma
iii. Link between water and salt
1. Solutes in the body include electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium ions
2. Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one compartment to another (osmosis)
a. Alters blood volume and blood pressure
b. Impairs the activity of cells
iv. Water in = water out
1. Sources for water intake-
a. Ingested foods and fluids
b. Water produced from metabolic processes (-10%)
c. Thirst mechanism is the driving force of water intake
2. Sources for water output
a. Vaporization out of the lungs
b. Lost in perspiration
c. Leave the body in the feces
d. Urine production
3. Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
4. Less urine (concentrated) is produced if large amounts of water are lost
5. Proper concentrations of various electrolyte must be present
v. Regulation of water and electrolyte reabsorption
1. Osmoreceptors: cells in the hypothalamus
a. React to changes in blood composition by becoming more active
2. Regulation occurs primarily by hormones
a. ADH = antidiuretic hormone
i. Prevents excessive water loss in urine
ii. Causes the kidney’s collecting ducts to reabsorb more water
iii. Alcohol suppresses ADH, causing urination
iv. Diabetes insipidus
1. Occurs when ADH is not released
2. Leads to huge outputs of dilute urine
b. Aldosterone
i. From adrenal cortex
ii. Regulates sodium ion content of ECF
iii. Sodium is the electrolyte most responsible for osmotic water flows
iv. Aldesterone promotes reabsorption of sodium ions
v. Remember, water flows salt!
c. Rennin-angiotensin mechanism
i. Juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus
1. Cells stimulated by
2. Rennin produces
3. Angiotensin II causes
4. Results in
c. Maintaining acid-base balance in blood
i. Blood pH between
1. Alkalosis =
2. Acidosis =
3. Physiological acidosis =
ii. Body acids
1. P , L, A
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Ammonia
4. Acid-base control systems/organs
a. Kidneys
b. Respiration
c. Blood buffers
i. Acids =
ii. Strong acids =
iii. Weak acids =
iv. Bases =
v. Strong bases =
vi. Weak bases =
vii. Action
1. Bind to H+
2. Release H+
viii. Three major systems
1. Protein
2. Phosphate
3. Bicarbonate
a. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
b. Carbonic acid
c. Bicarbonate ions
d. HCl + NaHCO3 H2CO3 + NaCl
4. Developmental aspects of the urinary system
a. Early life
i. Functional kidneys
ii. Newborn
1. Bladder
2. Urine
3. Void
iii. Young children
1. Control of voluntary sphincter
2. Nighttime control
3. Bladder infections
iv. Elderly
1. Bladder changes
2. Associated problems
a. Urgency
b. Frequency
c. Nocturia
d. Incontinence
e. Urinary retention
Chapter 12 Lymphatic System
Chapter 12: Lymphatic System/Immunity
1. Lymphatic system
a. Two semi-independent parts
i. Lymphatic vessels
ii. Lymphold tissue and organs
b. Lymphatic system functions
i. Transports escaped fluids back to the blood
ii. Plays essential roles in immunity
2. Lymphatic characteristics
a. Lymph- excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
b. Properties of lymphatic vessels
i. One way system toward the heart
ii. No pump
iii. Lymph moves toward the heart
iv. Milking action of skeletal muscle
v. Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle in vessel walls
3. Lymphatic vessels
a. Lymphatic capillaries
i. Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
ii. Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
iii. Capillaries: anchored to connective tissue by filaments
iv. Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
v. Fluid forced along the vessel
b. Lymphatic collecting vessels (like veins)
i. Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
ii. Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
iii. Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
1. Right lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct
4. Lymph: contains
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses
c. Cancer cells
d. Cell debris
5. Lymph nodes
a. Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
b. Defense cells within lymph nodes:
c. Macrophages- engulf and destroy foreign substances
d. Lymphocytes- provide immune responses to antigens
6. Other lymphoid organs
a. Spleen
b. Thymus- most active through early childhood
c. Tonsils
d. Peyer’s patches- in intestinal walls
7. Lines of defense
a. First line = skin and mucous membrane
i. Physical barrier to foreign materials
ii. Also provide protective secretions:
1. pH of skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
2. sebum (oil) is toxic to bacteria
3. vaginal secretions are very acidic
b. Second line =
i. Phagocytes- cells that eat mostly bacteria
ii. Natural killer cells- contain toxic chemicals
iii. Inflammatory response (next slide)
iv. Fever- “cooks” invaders
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
c. Third line =
i. Immune response = immune system’s response to a threat
ii. Immunology = study of immunity
iii. Antibodies = proteins that protect from pathogens, attack antigen molecules
iv. Three aspects
1. Antigen specific- recognizes and acts against particular and foreign substances
2. Systemic- not restricted to the initial infection
3. Memory- recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
v. Types
1. Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity
a. Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
2. Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity
a. Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts
1. Lymphatic system
a. Two semi-independent parts
i. Lymphatic vessels
ii. Lymphold tissue and organs
b. Lymphatic system functions
i. Transports escaped fluids back to the blood
ii. Plays essential roles in immunity
2. Lymphatic characteristics
a. Lymph- excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
b. Properties of lymphatic vessels
i. One way system toward the heart
ii. No pump
iii. Lymph moves toward the heart
iv. Milking action of skeletal muscle
v. Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle in vessel walls
3. Lymphatic vessels
a. Lymphatic capillaries
i. Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
ii. Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
iii. Capillaries: anchored to connective tissue by filaments
iv. Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
v. Fluid forced along the vessel
b. Lymphatic collecting vessels (like veins)
i. Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
ii. Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
iii. Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
1. Right lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct
4. Lymph: contains
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses
c. Cancer cells
d. Cell debris
5. Lymph nodes
a. Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
b. Defense cells within lymph nodes:
c. Macrophages- engulf and destroy foreign substances
d. Lymphocytes- provide immune responses to antigens
6. Other lymphoid organs
a. Spleen
b. Thymus- most active through early childhood
c. Tonsils
d. Peyer’s patches- in intestinal walls
7. Lines of defense
a. First line = skin and mucous membrane
i. Physical barrier to foreign materials
ii. Also provide protective secretions:
1. pH of skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
2. sebum (oil) is toxic to bacteria
3. vaginal secretions are very acidic
b. Second line =
i. Phagocytes- cells that eat mostly bacteria
ii. Natural killer cells- contain toxic chemicals
iii. Inflammatory response (next slide)
iv. Fever- “cooks” invaders
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
c. Third line =
i. Immune response = immune system’s response to a threat
ii. Immunology = study of immunity
iii. Antibodies = proteins that protect from pathogens, attack antigen molecules
iv. Three aspects
1. Antigen specific- recognizes and acts against particular and foreign substances
2. Systemic- not restricted to the initial infection
3. Memory- recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
v. Types
1. Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity
a. Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
2. Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity
a. Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts
Chapter 11 Heart and Blood Vessels
Chapter 11
Part A: The Heart
1. Where is it?
a. Thorax between the lungs in the inferior mediastinum
b. Orientation- pointed apex directed toward left hip
c. About the size of your fist
2. Coverings
a. Pericardium- a double-walled sac
i. Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
ii. Serous pericardium is deep to the fibrous pericardium and composed of two layers
1. Visceral pericardium- next to the heart, also known as the epicardium
2. Parietal pericardium-
a. Outside layer that lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
b. Serous fluid- fills the space between the layers of pericardium
3. Heart Structure
a. The heart wall:
i. Epicardium
1. Outside layer= visceral peridcardium
2. Connective tissue
ii. Myocardium
1. Middle layer
2. Mostly cardiac muscle
iii. Endocardium
1. Inner layer
2. endothelium
b. Heart Chambers
i. Double pump
ii. Four chambers
1. Two atria- receiving chambers
a. Right and left atrium
2. Two ventricles- discharging chambers
a. Right and left ventricle
c. Heart septa
i. Interventricular septum- seperates the two ventricles
ii. Interatrial septum
d. Heart valves
i. Purpose- allow blood to flow in and only one direction to prevent backflow
ii. Four valves
1. Atrioventricular (AV)- between atria and ventricles
a. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of heart)
b. Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)
2. Semilunar- between ventricle and artery
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve
b. Aortic semilunat valve
3. AV valve details
a. Anchored in place by chordae tendineae (“heart strings”)
b. Open during heart relaxation and closed during ventricular contraction
4. Semilunar valve details
a. Closed during heart relaxation but open during ventricular contraction
b. Operate opposite of one another to force a one-way path of blood through the heart
c. Valve sequence
4. Systemic and pulmonary circulations
a. Systemic circulation- blood flows from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart
b. Pulmonary circulation- blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart
5. Great vessels
a. Arteries
i. Aorta
ii. Pulmonary artery
b. Veins
i. Superior/inferior venae cavae
ii. Pulmonary veins
6. Blood flow through the heart
a. From venae cavae
b. From right atrium
c. From right ventricle
d. From pulmonary trunk
e. In the lungs
f. From the lungs
g. From left atrium
h. From left ventricle
7. Coronary circulation
a. Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium
b. Coronary arteries- branch from the aorta to supple the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
c. Cardiac veins- drains the myocardium of blood
d. Coronary sinus- a large vein on the posterior of the heart, receives blood from cardiac veins
e. Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus
8. Heart conduction system
a. Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) to coordinate pumping
b. Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve impulses, in a regular, continuous way
c. Sinoatrial (SA) node- “pacemaker” is in the right atrium
d. Atrioventricular (AV) node- is at the junction of atria and ventricles
e. AV bundle- bundles of his, is in the interventricular septum
f. Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall muscles
g. Heart contractions
i. Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node (SA node)
ii. Sequential stimulation occurs at other autorhythmic cells
iii. Cardiac depolarization
iv. Irregularities
1. Tachycardia- rapid heart rate over 100 beats per minute
2. Bradycardia- slow heart rate less than 60 beats per minute
9. Cardiac cycle
i. Atria contract simultaneously
ii. Atria relax, then ventricles contract
iii. Systole- contraction
iv. Diastole- relaxation
b. Lubb dupp = heart sounds
i. Lubb
ii. Dupp
Chapter 11
Part B: (Mostly) Blood Vessels
1. The heart
a. Cardiac output (CO) defined: amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute
b. Stroke volume defined: volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
i. Remains relatively constant
ii. 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle/heartbeat
c. Heart rate: typically 75 beats per minute
d. CO = HR x SV
i. CO = HR (75 beats/min) x SV (70 mL/beat)
ii. CO = 5250 mL/min
iii. Starling’s law of the heart- the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
iv. Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output
2. Regulation of heart rate
a. Increased heart rate by the
i. Sympathetic nervous system
ii. Crisis- more blood needed
iii. Low blood pressure
iv. Hormonal control:
1. Epinephrine = adrenaline
2. Thyroxine = thyroid gland, general metabolism
v. Exercise
vi. Decreased blood volume
b. Decreased heart rate by the
i. Parasympathetic nervous system
ii. High blood pressure or blood volume
iii. Decreased venous return
3. Blood vessels = the vascular system
a. General purpose- transport blood to the tissue and back
b. Classified by direction
i. Carry blood away from heart
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles = small arteries
ii. Exchanges between tissues and blood
1. Capillary beds
iii. Return blood toward heart
1. Venules
2. Veins
c. Structure of walls: three layers = tunics
i. Intima intima (inner)
1. Endothelium- simple squamous epithelium
ii. Tunic media
1. Smooth muscle, connective tissue
2. Controlled by sympathetic nervous system (involuntary)
iii. Tunic externa
1. Mostly fibrous connective tissue
d. Differences between vessels
i. Arteries
1. Walls of arteries are the thickest, more elastic
ii. Veins
1. Lumens of veins are larger
2. Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
3. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
iii. Capillaries
1. Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick of diffusion
e. Movement of blood through
i. Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart:
ii. Veins
f. Capillary beds
i. Two types of vessels
1. Vascular shunt- vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule
2. True capillaries- exchange vessels
ii. Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
iii. Carbon dioxide and waste products cross into blood
iv. Materials exchanged due to concentration gradients:
1. Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
2. Carbon dioxide and other waste leave the cells
v. Exchange mechanisms
1. Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
2. Endocytosis- things go into the cells
3. Exocytosis- things go out of the cells
4. Materials move through interstitial fluid to cells
g. Major arteries: Aorta
i. Largest artery in the body
ii. Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
iii. Regions
1. Ascending aorta- leaves the left ventricle
2. Aortic arch- 180 to the left
3. Thoracic aorta- travels downward through the thorax
4. Abdominal aorta- passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
iv. Systemic circulation:
1. Arterial branches of the aorta
v. Pulmonary circulation:
1. Branches of the pulmonary arteries
2. Study figure 11.12
h. Major veins
i. Systemic circulation
1. Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium
2. Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
3. Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
i. Fetal circulation
i. Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through the placenta
ii. Umbilical cord contains three vessels
1. Umbilical vein- carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
2. Umbilical arteries (2)- carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from fetus to placenta
iii. Blood flow bypass (nonfunctional) lungs
1. Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale (hole in septum)
2. Blood from pulmonary artery goes directly into aorta
j. Hepatic portal circulation
i. Portal circulation = extra set of veins and capillaries
ii. Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. pancreas
iii. Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver
iv. Liver helps maintain proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood
4. Pulse- pressure wave of blood
a. Unit: beats/minute
b. Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
c. Pulse averages 70-76 (60-100) beats per minute at rest
5. Blood pressure
a. Measured by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries
b. Measured with a **Sphygmomanometer**
c. Systolic- pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction
d. Diastolic- pressure when ventricles relax
e. How to write it: systolic/diastolic (120/80 mm Hg)
f. Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart increases
g. Blood pressure: effects of factors
i. Affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state, genetics
ii. CO (cardiac output) = amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
iii. PR (peripheral resistance) = the amount of friction blood encounters as it flows through the vesseks
1. Narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume increases PR
iv. BP = CO x PR
v. Neural
1. Autonomic
vi. Renal =
1. Regulated by
2. Rennin
vii. Temperature
1. Heat
2. Cold
viii. Chemicals
ix. Diet
x. Genetic predisposition
h. Variations
i. Normal
1. Systolic:
2. Diastolic:
ii. Hypotension
1. Low
2. Associated
iii. Hypertension
1. High
2. Can be
Part A: The Heart
1. Where is it?
a. Thorax between the lungs in the inferior mediastinum
b. Orientation- pointed apex directed toward left hip
c. About the size of your fist
2. Coverings
a. Pericardium- a double-walled sac
i. Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
ii. Serous pericardium is deep to the fibrous pericardium and composed of two layers
1. Visceral pericardium- next to the heart, also known as the epicardium
2. Parietal pericardium-
a. Outside layer that lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
b. Serous fluid- fills the space between the layers of pericardium
3. Heart Structure
a. The heart wall:
i. Epicardium
1. Outside layer= visceral peridcardium
2. Connective tissue
ii. Myocardium
1. Middle layer
2. Mostly cardiac muscle
iii. Endocardium
1. Inner layer
2. endothelium
b. Heart Chambers
i. Double pump
ii. Four chambers
1. Two atria- receiving chambers
a. Right and left atrium
2. Two ventricles- discharging chambers
a. Right and left ventricle
c. Heart septa
i. Interventricular septum- seperates the two ventricles
ii. Interatrial septum
d. Heart valves
i. Purpose- allow blood to flow in and only one direction to prevent backflow
ii. Four valves
1. Atrioventricular (AV)- between atria and ventricles
a. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of heart)
b. Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)
2. Semilunar- between ventricle and artery
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve
b. Aortic semilunat valve
3. AV valve details
a. Anchored in place by chordae tendineae (“heart strings”)
b. Open during heart relaxation and closed during ventricular contraction
4. Semilunar valve details
a. Closed during heart relaxation but open during ventricular contraction
b. Operate opposite of one another to force a one-way path of blood through the heart
c. Valve sequence
4. Systemic and pulmonary circulations
a. Systemic circulation- blood flows from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart
b. Pulmonary circulation- blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart
5. Great vessels
a. Arteries
i. Aorta
ii. Pulmonary artery
b. Veins
i. Superior/inferior venae cavae
ii. Pulmonary veins
6. Blood flow through the heart
a. From venae cavae
b. From right atrium
c. From right ventricle
d. From pulmonary trunk
e. In the lungs
f. From the lungs
g. From left atrium
h. From left ventricle
7. Coronary circulation
a. Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium
b. Coronary arteries- branch from the aorta to supple the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
c. Cardiac veins- drains the myocardium of blood
d. Coronary sinus- a large vein on the posterior of the heart, receives blood from cardiac veins
e. Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus
8. Heart conduction system
a. Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system) to coordinate pumping
b. Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve impulses, in a regular, continuous way
c. Sinoatrial (SA) node- “pacemaker” is in the right atrium
d. Atrioventricular (AV) node- is at the junction of atria and ventricles
e. AV bundle- bundles of his, is in the interventricular septum
f. Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall muscles
g. Heart contractions
i. Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node (SA node)
ii. Sequential stimulation occurs at other autorhythmic cells
iii. Cardiac depolarization
iv. Irregularities
1. Tachycardia- rapid heart rate over 100 beats per minute
2. Bradycardia- slow heart rate less than 60 beats per minute
9. Cardiac cycle
i. Atria contract simultaneously
ii. Atria relax, then ventricles contract
iii. Systole- contraction
iv. Diastole- relaxation
b. Lubb dupp = heart sounds
i. Lubb
ii. Dupp
Chapter 11
Part B: (Mostly) Blood Vessels
1. The heart
a. Cardiac output (CO) defined: amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute
b. Stroke volume defined: volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
i. Remains relatively constant
ii. 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle/heartbeat
c. Heart rate: typically 75 beats per minute
d. CO = HR x SV
i. CO = HR (75 beats/min) x SV (70 mL/beat)
ii. CO = 5250 mL/min
iii. Starling’s law of the heart- the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
iv. Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output
2. Regulation of heart rate
a. Increased heart rate by the
i. Sympathetic nervous system
ii. Crisis- more blood needed
iii. Low blood pressure
iv. Hormonal control:
1. Epinephrine = adrenaline
2. Thyroxine = thyroid gland, general metabolism
v. Exercise
vi. Decreased blood volume
b. Decreased heart rate by the
i. Parasympathetic nervous system
ii. High blood pressure or blood volume
iii. Decreased venous return
3. Blood vessels = the vascular system
a. General purpose- transport blood to the tissue and back
b. Classified by direction
i. Carry blood away from heart
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles = small arteries
ii. Exchanges between tissues and blood
1. Capillary beds
iii. Return blood toward heart
1. Venules
2. Veins
c. Structure of walls: three layers = tunics
i. Intima intima (inner)
1. Endothelium- simple squamous epithelium
ii. Tunic media
1. Smooth muscle, connective tissue
2. Controlled by sympathetic nervous system (involuntary)
iii. Tunic externa
1. Mostly fibrous connective tissue
d. Differences between vessels
i. Arteries
1. Walls of arteries are the thickest, more elastic
ii. Veins
1. Lumens of veins are larger
2. Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
3. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
iii. Capillaries
1. Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick of diffusion
e. Movement of blood through
i. Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart:
ii. Veins
f. Capillary beds
i. Two types of vessels
1. Vascular shunt- vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule
2. True capillaries- exchange vessels
ii. Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
iii. Carbon dioxide and waste products cross into blood
iv. Materials exchanged due to concentration gradients:
1. Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
2. Carbon dioxide and other waste leave the cells
v. Exchange mechanisms
1. Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
2. Endocytosis- things go into the cells
3. Exocytosis- things go out of the cells
4. Materials move through interstitial fluid to cells
g. Major arteries: Aorta
i. Largest artery in the body
ii. Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
iii. Regions
1. Ascending aorta- leaves the left ventricle
2. Aortic arch- 180 to the left
3. Thoracic aorta- travels downward through the thorax
4. Abdominal aorta- passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
iv. Systemic circulation:
1. Arterial branches of the aorta
v. Pulmonary circulation:
1. Branches of the pulmonary arteries
2. Study figure 11.12
h. Major veins
i. Systemic circulation
1. Superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium
2. Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
3. Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
i. Fetal circulation
i. Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through the placenta
ii. Umbilical cord contains three vessels
1. Umbilical vein- carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
2. Umbilical arteries (2)- carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from fetus to placenta
iii. Blood flow bypass (nonfunctional) lungs
1. Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale (hole in septum)
2. Blood from pulmonary artery goes directly into aorta
j. Hepatic portal circulation
i. Portal circulation = extra set of veins and capillaries
ii. Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. pancreas
iii. Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver
iv. Liver helps maintain proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood
4. Pulse- pressure wave of blood
a. Unit: beats/minute
b. Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
c. Pulse averages 70-76 (60-100) beats per minute at rest
5. Blood pressure
a. Measured by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries
b. Measured with a **Sphygmomanometer**
c. Systolic- pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction
d. Diastolic- pressure when ventricles relax
e. How to write it: systolic/diastolic (120/80 mm Hg)
f. Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart increases
g. Blood pressure: effects of factors
i. Affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state, genetics
ii. CO (cardiac output) = amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
iii. PR (peripheral resistance) = the amount of friction blood encounters as it flows through the vesseks
1. Narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume increases PR
iv. BP = CO x PR
v. Neural
1. Autonomic
vi. Renal =
1. Regulated by
2. Rennin
vii. Temperature
1. Heat
2. Cold
viii. Chemicals
ix. Diet
x. Genetic predisposition
h. Variations
i. Normal
1. Systolic:
2. Diastolic:
ii. Hypotension
1. Low
2. Associated
iii. Hypertension
1. High
2. Can be
Thursday, April 28, 2011
Speak English Poster
I agree with the photo saying that since we are in America we should speak English. I know that tourism is a big part of America but when it comes to illegal immagrants, there is a problem. There are a lot of illegal immagrants in America from Mexico. I dont think it is fair that they refuse to learn english becuase is makes it harder for american citizens. When someone travels to france they try to speak english. In some parts of Canada it is required to learn french. I think it is only fair they need to learn engish because it is part of the culture of americans. I know that it may be offensive to them but I think that it has a very valid point.
Friday, April 1, 2011
Chapter 10 Blood
Chapter 10
Blood
1. Components of cardiovascular system = internal transport = body’s plumbing system
a. Heart = pump of fluids, creates pressure
b. Blood vessels- transport fluid (“pipes”)
c. Blood = fluid: only liquid tissue
i. River of life: liquid
1. Functions
a. Distribution
i. Gases- oxygen and carbon dioxide
ii. Nutrients- digestive foods
iii. Wastes- nitrogen (mostly urea)
iv. Hormones- regulate metabolism: endocrine glands
b. Regulation
i. Body temperature- heat loss at skin surface
ii. pH in body tissues- buffer to resist abrupt changes: bicarbonate ion
iii. fluid volume- salts and blood proteins keep concentration of body fluids
c. Protection
i. Clotting reaction by platelets and plasma proteins
ii. Antibodies, complement proteins, white blood cells act as body defenses
iii. preventing blood loss
iv. preventing infection
2. Blood tissue
a. Body’s only liquid tissue
b. Classified as connective tissue: formed in bone
c. Components
i. Living cells- formed elements
ii. Nonliving matrix- plasma
d. Centrifuged blood
i. Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
ii. Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
iii. Red blood cells
iv. White blood cells/platelets
v. Plasma
3. Physical characteristics
a. Color
i. Oxygen-rich is scarlet red
ii. Oxygen-poor is dull red
b. pH range between 7.35-7.45
c. body temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4F
d. in a healthy man, blood volume is about 5-6 liters or about 6 quarts
e. blood makes up 8% of the body weight
4. Blood plasma
a. 90% water
b. Includes dissolved substances:
i. Nutrients
ii. Salts (electrolytes)
iii. Respiratory gases
iv. Hormones
v. Plasma proteins
vi. Waste products
c. Plasma proteins
i. Most abundant solutes in plasma
ii. Most plasma proteins are made by liver
iii. Various
1. Albumins- regulates osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins- help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies- help protect the body from pathogens
iv. Acidosis- blood becomes too acidic
v. Alkalosis- blood becomes too basic
vi. In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal
5. Formed elements (blood cells)
a. Erythrocytes- red blood cells (RBC’s)
i. Main function is to carry oxygen
ii. Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
1. Shape- biconcave disks
2. Essentially bags of hemoglobin
3. Anucleate (no nucleus)
4. Contains very few organelles
5. 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood
iii. Hemoglobin
1. Protein that contains iron
2. Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
3. Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
4. Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
5. Normal blood contains 12-18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
iv. Hemostatic imbalances
1. General anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
2. Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
3. Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes
b. Leukocytes- white blood cells (WBC’s)
i. Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
ii. These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
iii. Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
iv. Moves by ameboid motion
v. Responds to chemical released by damaged tissues
vi. Number: 4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood
vii. Abnormal numbers:
1. Leukocytosis- WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection
2. Leukpoenia- abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly cause by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
3. Leukemia- bone marrow becomes cancerous , turns out excess malformed WBC
c. Thrombocytes
i. Platelets
ii. Cell fragments
6. Types of leukocytes
a. Granulocytes
i. Granules in their cytoplasm
ii. Lobed nuclei
iii. Types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
b. Agranulocytes
i. Lack cytoplasmic granules
ii. Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
iii. Types: lymphocytes and monocytes
c. List of white blood cells from most to least abundant:
i. Never (neutrophils)
ii. Let (lymphocytes)
iii. Monkeys (monocytes)
iv. Eat (eosinophils)
v. Bananas (basophils)
7. Formed elements
a. Neutrophils: 40-70% WBC’s
b. Act as phagocytes (eat other cells Pacman) at active sites of infection
c. Eosinphils: 1-4%
d. Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms
e. Basophils: 1%
f. Initiate inflammation with histamine
g. Lymphocytes: 20-45%
h. Play an important role in the immune response
i. Monocytes: 4-8%
j. Function as macrophages in chronic infection
8. Platelets-
a. Derived from ruptured megakarocytes
b. Needed for the clotting process
c. Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
9. Hematopoiesis-
a. Blood cell formation
b. Occurs in red bone marrow
All blood cells are derived fr
Blood
1. Components of cardiovascular system = internal transport = body’s plumbing system
a. Heart = pump of fluids, creates pressure
b. Blood vessels- transport fluid (“pipes”)
c. Blood = fluid: only liquid tissue
i. River of life: liquid
1. Functions
a. Distribution
i. Gases- oxygen and carbon dioxide
ii. Nutrients- digestive foods
iii. Wastes- nitrogen (mostly urea)
iv. Hormones- regulate metabolism: endocrine glands
b. Regulation
i. Body temperature- heat loss at skin surface
ii. pH in body tissues- buffer to resist abrupt changes: bicarbonate ion
iii. fluid volume- salts and blood proteins keep concentration of body fluids
c. Protection
i. Clotting reaction by platelets and plasma proteins
ii. Antibodies, complement proteins, white blood cells act as body defenses
iii. preventing blood loss
iv. preventing infection
2. Blood tissue
a. Body’s only liquid tissue
b. Classified as connective tissue: formed in bone
c. Components
i. Living cells- formed elements
ii. Nonliving matrix- plasma
d. Centrifuged blood
i. Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
ii. Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
iii. Red blood cells
iv. White blood cells/platelets
v. Plasma
3. Physical characteristics
a. Color
i. Oxygen-rich is scarlet red
ii. Oxygen-poor is dull red
b. pH range between 7.35-7.45
c. body temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4F
d. in a healthy man, blood volume is about 5-6 liters or about 6 quarts
e. blood makes up 8% of the body weight
4. Blood plasma
a. 90% water
b. Includes dissolved substances:
i. Nutrients
ii. Salts (electrolytes)
iii. Respiratory gases
iv. Hormones
v. Plasma proteins
vi. Waste products
c. Plasma proteins
i. Most abundant solutes in plasma
ii. Most plasma proteins are made by liver
iii. Various
1. Albumins- regulates osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins- help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies- help protect the body from pathogens
iv. Acidosis- blood becomes too acidic
v. Alkalosis- blood becomes too basic
vi. In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal
5. Formed elements (blood cells)
a. Erythrocytes- red blood cells (RBC’s)
i. Main function is to carry oxygen
ii. Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
1. Shape- biconcave disks
2. Essentially bags of hemoglobin
3. Anucleate (no nucleus)
4. Contains very few organelles
5. 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood
iii. Hemoglobin
1. Protein that contains iron
2. Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
3. Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
4. Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
5. Normal blood contains 12-18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
iv. Hemostatic imbalances
1. General anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
2. Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
3. Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes
b. Leukocytes- white blood cells (WBC’s)
i. Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
ii. These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
iii. Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
iv. Moves by ameboid motion
v. Responds to chemical released by damaged tissues
vi. Number: 4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood
vii. Abnormal numbers:
1. Leukocytosis- WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection
2. Leukpoenia- abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly cause by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
3. Leukemia- bone marrow becomes cancerous , turns out excess malformed WBC
c. Thrombocytes
i. Platelets
ii. Cell fragments
6. Types of leukocytes
a. Granulocytes
i. Granules in their cytoplasm
ii. Lobed nuclei
iii. Types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
b. Agranulocytes
i. Lack cytoplasmic granules
ii. Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
iii. Types: lymphocytes and monocytes
c. List of white blood cells from most to least abundant:
i. Never (neutrophils)
ii. Let (lymphocytes)
iii. Monkeys (monocytes)
iv. Eat (eosinophils)
v. Bananas (basophils)
7. Formed elements
a. Neutrophils: 40-70% WBC’s
b. Act as phagocytes (eat other cells Pacman) at active sites of infection
c. Eosinphils: 1-4%
d. Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms
e. Basophils: 1%
f. Initiate inflammation with histamine
g. Lymphocytes: 20-45%
h. Play an important role in the immune response
i. Monocytes: 4-8%
j. Function as macrophages in chronic infection
8. Platelets-
a. Derived from ruptured megakarocytes
b. Needed for the clotting process
c. Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
9. Hematopoiesis-
a. Blood cell formation
b. Occurs in red bone marrow
All blood cells are derived fr
Chapter 13 Respiratory System
Chapter 13
The Respiratory System
1. Organs of the system
a. Nose
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Lungs/alveoli(us)
2. Functions of the system
a. Gas exchange between blood and external environment:
i. Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
ii. Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm the incoming air
b. Specific functions in parts of the system
3. Nose
a. Only external visible part of the respiratory system
b. Air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares)
c. Interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum
d. Nasal cavity
i. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
ii. The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa that:
1. Moisten air
2. Trap incoming foreign particles
iii. Lateral walls have projections called conchae:
1. Increase surface area
2. Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity
iv. The nasal cavity is separate from the oral cavity by the palate:
1. Anterior hard palate (bone)
2. Posterior soft palate (muscle)
v. Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity are called sinuses
1. Frontal bone
2. Sphenoid bone
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Maxillary bone
5. Functions
a. Lighten the skull
b. Act as resonance chambers for speech
c. Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
4. Pharynx
a. Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
b. Three regions:
i. Nasopharynx- superior region behind nasal cavity
ii. Oropharynx- middle region behind mouth
iii. Laryngopharynx- inferior region attached to larynx
c. The oropharynx and larngopharynx are common passageways for air and food
d. Eustacean = auditory=pharyngotympanic tubes
e. Tonsils
i. Pharyngeal
ii. Palatine
iii. Lingual
5. Larynx
a. Routes air and food into proper channels
b. Plays a role in speech
c. Made of eight rigid hyaline….. cartilage
i. Thyroid- largest of the hyaline cartilages
1. Protrudes anteriorly (adam’s apple)
ii. Epiglottis – protects the superior opening of the larynx
1. Routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
2. When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx
d. Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
i. Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
ii. Glottis
6. Trachea
a. Four inches long tube that connects larynx with bronchi
b. Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
c. Lined with ciliated mucosa:
i. Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
ii. Expels mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
7. Main bronchi(us)
a. Formed by division of the trachea
b. Enters the lung at the hilum (medial depression)
c. Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches
8. Lungs
a. Anatomy
i. Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
ii. Heart occuples central portion (middle wall) called mediastinum
iii. Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
iv. Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
v. Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
1. Right- three lobes
2. Left- two lobes
b. Coverings
i. Serosa covers the outer suface of the lungs
ii. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
iii. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracis cavity
iv. Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding
v. These two pleural layer resist being pulled apart
c. Bronchial tree
i. Bronchi divisions
1. All but the smallest of theses passageways have reinforving cartilage in their walls
2. Primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi
ii. Bronchioles
1. Terminal bronchioles
iii. Respiratory zone
1. Alveolar ducts
2. Alveolar sacs
3. Alveoli(us)
a. Site of gas exchange= alveoli only
b. Respiratory membrane = air/blood barrier
i. Thin squamous epithelium layer lines alveolar walls
ii. Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
iii. Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
iv. On one side of the membrane is air and on the other side is blood flowing past
c. Gas exchange – the ultimate goal
9. Gas exchange via diffusion only
a. Oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Macrophages
d. Surfactant
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing
b. External respiration
i. Oxygen
ii. Carbon dioxide
c. Respiratory gas transport
d. Internal respiration
Chapter 13 – Respiration – Part B
9. Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion
a. Oxygen enters the blood
b. Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
c. Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”) add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
d. Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
10. Events of respiration
a. Pulmonary ventilation- moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
b. External respiration- gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
i. Oxygen is loaded into the blood
ii. Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood
c. Respiratory gas transport- transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
d. Internal respiration- gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
11. Mechanics of breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
a. Completely mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
b. Volume changes leads to pressure changes, which leads to the flow of gases to equalize pressure
c. Charles’ Law: P = 1/V
d. Two phases:
i. Inspiration- inhalation
1. Flow of air into lungs
ii. Expiration- exhalation
1. Air leaving lungs
iii. Yoga
e. Inspiration details
i. Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract
ii. External air pulled into chest due to:
1. Increase in intrapulmonary volume
2. Decrease in gas pressure
f. Expiration details
i. Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity
ii. As muscles relax, air pushed out of lungs due to:
1. Decrease in intrapulmonary volume
2. Increase in gas pressure
3. Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostals muscles to depress the rib cage
g. Thoracic cavity pressure
i. Negative relative to the lungs
ii. Differences between lungs & pleural space
12. Nonrespiratory gas movements – can be caused by reflexes or voluntary action
a. Coughing and sneezing- clears lungs of debris
b. Crying- emotionally induced mechanism
c. Laughing- similar to crying
d. Hiccup- sudden inspirations
e. Yawning- very deep inspiration
i. Pandiculation = yawning +stretching
f. Talking – communication
13. Respiratory volumes and capacities
a. Normal breathing = tidal volume (TV) = 500 mL
i. Affected by a person’s size, sex, age, physical condition
b. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)= 2100 and 3200 mL
i. Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
c. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = 1200 mL
i. Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
d. Vital capacity- all the way in to all the way out, the total amount of exchangeable air, vital capacity= TV + IRV + ERV
e. Residual volume (RV) =
f. Dead space volume (DSV) = air that remains in conduction zone and never reaches alveoli (about 150 mL)
g. Functional volume = air that actually reaches the respiratory zone, usually about 350 mL, a low percentage of capacity
h. Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer
i. Capacities = two or more volumes together
i. Spirometer
ii. Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
iii. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VC + RV
14. Respiratory sounds
a. Monitored with a stethoscope
b. Two sounds
i. Bronchial- produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
ii. Vesicular breathing- soft sounds of air filling alveoli
15. External respiration details
a. Oxygen loaded into the blood
i. The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
ii. Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
iii. Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide unloaded from blood
i. Blood returning from tissues had higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
ii. Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to be exhaled
iii. Blood leaving lungs has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than when it entered
16. Gas transport in blood
a. Oxygen transport in the blood
i. Almost all oxygen attached to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)- 98%
ii. Small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma 2%
iii. Carbon monoxide will outcompete oxygen for hemoglobin sites suffocation due to CO poisoning
b. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
i. Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3- ) (Acid)
ii. Small amount carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma
iii. Getting out of blood:
1. HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 H2O + CO2
17. Internal respiration = exchange between
a. Opposite what happens in the lungs
i. Carbon dioxide
ii. Oxygen
18. Neural control of respiration
a. Phrenic and intercostals nerves
b. Rate and depth of breathing
i. Medulla
ii. Pons
c. Rates
i. Normal
ii. Hypernea
d. Other factors controlling breathing
i. Physical
1. Body temperature
2. Exercise
3. Talking
4. Coughing
ii. Volition
iii. Emotional factors
iv. Chemical factors
1. Getting rid of CO2
2. Oxygen levels
v. Hyperventilation
vi. Hypoventilation
The Respiratory System
1. Organs of the system
a. Nose
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Lungs/alveoli(us)
2. Functions of the system
a. Gas exchange between blood and external environment:
i. Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
ii. Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm the incoming air
b. Specific functions in parts of the system
3. Nose
a. Only external visible part of the respiratory system
b. Air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares)
c. Interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum
d. Nasal cavity
i. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
ii. The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa that:
1. Moisten air
2. Trap incoming foreign particles
iii. Lateral walls have projections called conchae:
1. Increase surface area
2. Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity
iv. The nasal cavity is separate from the oral cavity by the palate:
1. Anterior hard palate (bone)
2. Posterior soft palate (muscle)
v. Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity are called sinuses
1. Frontal bone
2. Sphenoid bone
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Maxillary bone
5. Functions
a. Lighten the skull
b. Act as resonance chambers for speech
c. Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
4. Pharynx
a. Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
b. Three regions:
i. Nasopharynx- superior region behind nasal cavity
ii. Oropharynx- middle region behind mouth
iii. Laryngopharynx- inferior region attached to larynx
c. The oropharynx and larngopharynx are common passageways for air and food
d. Eustacean = auditory=pharyngotympanic tubes
e. Tonsils
i. Pharyngeal
ii. Palatine
iii. Lingual
5. Larynx
a. Routes air and food into proper channels
b. Plays a role in speech
c. Made of eight rigid hyaline….. cartilage
i. Thyroid- largest of the hyaline cartilages
1. Protrudes anteriorly (adam’s apple)
ii. Epiglottis – protects the superior opening of the larynx
1. Routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
2. When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx
d. Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
i. Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
ii. Glottis
6. Trachea
a. Four inches long tube that connects larynx with bronchi
b. Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
c. Lined with ciliated mucosa:
i. Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
ii. Expels mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
7. Main bronchi(us)
a. Formed by division of the trachea
b. Enters the lung at the hilum (medial depression)
c. Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches
8. Lungs
a. Anatomy
i. Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
ii. Heart occuples central portion (middle wall) called mediastinum
iii. Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
iv. Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
v. Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
1. Right- three lobes
2. Left- two lobes
b. Coverings
i. Serosa covers the outer suface of the lungs
ii. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
iii. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracis cavity
iv. Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding
v. These two pleural layer resist being pulled apart
c. Bronchial tree
i. Bronchi divisions
1. All but the smallest of theses passageways have reinforving cartilage in their walls
2. Primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi
ii. Bronchioles
1. Terminal bronchioles
iii. Respiratory zone
1. Alveolar ducts
2. Alveolar sacs
3. Alveoli(us)
a. Site of gas exchange= alveoli only
b. Respiratory membrane = air/blood barrier
i. Thin squamous epithelium layer lines alveolar walls
ii. Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
iii. Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
iv. On one side of the membrane is air and on the other side is blood flowing past
c. Gas exchange – the ultimate goal
9. Gas exchange via diffusion only
a. Oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Macrophages
d. Surfactant
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing
b. External respiration
i. Oxygen
ii. Carbon dioxide
c. Respiratory gas transport
d. Internal respiration
Chapter 13 – Respiration – Part B
9. Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion
a. Oxygen enters the blood
b. Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
c. Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”) add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
d. Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
10. Events of respiration
a. Pulmonary ventilation- moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
b. External respiration- gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
i. Oxygen is loaded into the blood
ii. Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood
c. Respiratory gas transport- transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
d. Internal respiration- gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
11. Mechanics of breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
a. Completely mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
b. Volume changes leads to pressure changes, which leads to the flow of gases to equalize pressure
c. Charles’ Law: P = 1/V
d. Two phases:
i. Inspiration- inhalation
1. Flow of air into lungs
ii. Expiration- exhalation
1. Air leaving lungs
iii. Yoga
e. Inspiration details
i. Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract
ii. External air pulled into chest due to:
1. Increase in intrapulmonary volume
2. Decrease in gas pressure
f. Expiration details
i. Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity
ii. As muscles relax, air pushed out of lungs due to:
1. Decrease in intrapulmonary volume
2. Increase in gas pressure
3. Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostals muscles to depress the rib cage
g. Thoracic cavity pressure
i. Negative relative to the lungs
ii. Differences between lungs & pleural space
12. Nonrespiratory gas movements – can be caused by reflexes or voluntary action
a. Coughing and sneezing- clears lungs of debris
b. Crying- emotionally induced mechanism
c. Laughing- similar to crying
d. Hiccup- sudden inspirations
e. Yawning- very deep inspiration
i. Pandiculation = yawning +stretching
f. Talking – communication
13. Respiratory volumes and capacities
a. Normal breathing = tidal volume (TV) = 500 mL
i. Affected by a person’s size, sex, age, physical condition
b. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)= 2100 and 3200 mL
i. Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
c. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = 1200 mL
i. Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
d. Vital capacity- all the way in to all the way out, the total amount of exchangeable air, vital capacity= TV + IRV + ERV
e. Residual volume (RV) =
f. Dead space volume (DSV) = air that remains in conduction zone and never reaches alveoli (about 150 mL)
g. Functional volume = air that actually reaches the respiratory zone, usually about 350 mL, a low percentage of capacity
h. Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer
i. Capacities = two or more volumes together
i. Spirometer
ii. Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
iii. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VC + RV
14. Respiratory sounds
a. Monitored with a stethoscope
b. Two sounds
i. Bronchial- produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
ii. Vesicular breathing- soft sounds of air filling alveoli
15. External respiration details
a. Oxygen loaded into the blood
i. The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
ii. Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
iii. Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide unloaded from blood
i. Blood returning from tissues had higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
ii. Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to be exhaled
iii. Blood leaving lungs has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than when it entered
16. Gas transport in blood
a. Oxygen transport in the blood
i. Almost all oxygen attached to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)- 98%
ii. Small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma 2%
iii. Carbon monoxide will outcompete oxygen for hemoglobin sites suffocation due to CO poisoning
b. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
i. Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3- ) (Acid)
ii. Small amount carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma
iii. Getting out of blood:
1. HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 H2O + CO2
17. Internal respiration = exchange between
a. Opposite what happens in the lungs
i. Carbon dioxide
ii. Oxygen
18. Neural control of respiration
a. Phrenic and intercostals nerves
b. Rate and depth of breathing
i. Medulla
ii. Pons
c. Rates
i. Normal
ii. Hypernea
d. Other factors controlling breathing
i. Physical
1. Body temperature
2. Exercise
3. Talking
4. Coughing
ii. Volition
iii. Emotional factors
iv. Chemical factors
1. Getting rid of CO2
2. Oxygen levels
v. Hyperventilation
vi. Hypoventilation
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